第5章 The Two Sides of Power (第1/2页)

TOEXPLAINWHEREIhavearrivedinmyunderstandingofpowerandloveandsocialchange,IhavetoexplainhowIstarted.
　　
　　IgrewupinMontrealandstudiedphysicsatMcGillUniversity.Inthesummerof1981,asIwasfinishingmyundergraduatedegree,IattendedameetingofthePugwashConferenceonScienceandWorldAffairsinBanff,Alberta,whereIheardaspeechaboutthecrucialenergyandenvironmentalchallengesarisingoutoftheincreasingcomplexityandfullness-ofpeopleandideasandthings-oftheworld.Idecidedtoshiftmystudiesfromphysicaltosocialsciences,andIwentontodoagraduatedegreeineconomicsandpublicpolicyattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.Aftergraduation,IworkedatavarietyofresearchinstitutionsinNorthAmerica,Europe,andAsia,andtheninthecorporateplanningdepartmentofPacificGasandElectricCompanyinSanFrancisco.
　　
　　Myfatherhadtaughtmethevalueofindustriousness-ofdoingmyjobwell,whateverthatjobwas-andofself-determinationandself-improvement.HisfavoritestorywasofHenryDavidThoreau,whohadlivedinthewoodsatWaldenPondandaftertwoyearshadcomeoutwithhisaxesharperthanwhenhehadgonein.
　　
　　Iwasyoungandambitiousandkeentomakemymarkontheworld.
　　
　　GENERATIVEPOWER
　　
　　In1988,whenIwastwenty-sevenyearsold,ImovedfromSanFranciscotoLondontotakeajobintheglobalstrategydepartmentoftheenergycompanyRoyalDutchShell.WhatIlovedmostaboutworkingforShellwasthepower.Ienjoyedgettingthediplomaticmemos:"ThegovernmentofCôted'IvoirehasreiteratedtheirrequestthatwedesistfromreferringtothemastheIvoryCoast."Ioncegotamistakenphonecallaskingmewherea$300millionpaymentforafueloildeliveryshouldbedeposited.IlikedShell'spracticalroleinprovidingtheworldwithenergy:thecompanyinvestedhundredsofmillionsofdollarsayearinresearchanddevelopment,drilledforoilthousandsoffeetunderwater,andproducedfuelsbyheatingoilsandsandcoolingnaturalgas.Ireveledinbeingasmallcoginthisbigandimportantmachine.
　　
　　IwasatShellattheheightofcapitalistconfidence.TheBerlinWallhadjustfallen,theInternetboomwasstarting,FrancisFukuyamahadpublished"TheEndofHistory,"TomWolfewaswritingaboutManhattanfinanciersas"MastersoftheUniverse,"andMargaretThatcherwaspronouncingthat"ThereIsNoAlternative"totheAnglo-Americanfreeenterprisemodel.Thedominantculturalmemewasthatinallspheres-economic,political,social,legal,international,intellectual-acontestamongcompetingpowersproducedthebestoutcome.[11]FrommyofficeinaLondonskyscraper,itseemedtomethatifeverybodyjustdidtheirjobandpushedforwardtheirpart-engagedincivilized,manlyjostling-thewholewouldgrowandprosper.
　　
　　MyexperienceatShell,andelsewhereintheworldofbusiness,wasofanalmostsingle-mindedemphasisonthepragmaticuseofpower-thekindofpowerthataformerphysicsstudentcouldrecognize.ItseemedtomethatbusinesspeopleunderstoodpowerthesamewayMartinLutherKingJr.did:"Powerproperlyunderstoodisnothingbuttheabilitytoachievepurpose."[12]TheiractionsseemedtoaccordwithPaulTillich'sexplanationofpower'sgenerativeroot:"thedriveofeverythinglivingtorealizeitself,withincreasingintensityandextensity."Thisdrivecanbeseenintheforceofagrowingseed:theforcethat"guerrillagardeners"employtoturnvacanturbanlotsintoparks,whentheysurreptitiouslyplantseedsthatbreakthroughtheconcrete.
　　
　　AtShellIcouldseehowmyowndriveforself-realization,alongwiththatofmycolleagues,producedfuriouslycompetitiveintellectualcreativityandgrowth.Theheadofourdepartment,AriedeGeus,wroteabookcalledTheLivingCompany.Thishelpedmealsoseehowthecompany'slivingdriveforself-realization,alongwiththatofothercompanies,producedfuriouslycompetitivecommercialcreativityandgrowth.[13]
　　
　　InallofthisIsawthegenerativeaspectofpower:theuniversaldriveto"getone'sjobdone."Powerexpressesourpurposefulness,wholeness,andagency.Althoughpoweristhedrivetorealizeone'sself,theeffectofpowergoesbeyondone'sself.Powerishowwemakeadifferenceintheworld;itisthemeansbywhichnewsocialrealitiesarecreated.Withoutpower,nothingnewgrows.
　　
　　AtShellIwasheadofthestrategygroupthatconstructedscenarios-plausiblealternativestories-ofsocial-political-environmentalcontextsinwhichthecompanymightfinditself.In1991,PieterleRoux,aprofessorattheleft-wingUniversityoftheWesternCapeinSouthAfrica,contactedmebecausehewantedtousetheShellmethodologytohelpagroupofSouthAfricanoppositionleadersdevelopastrategyforeffectingthetransitionawayfromapartheid.NelsonMandelahadjustbeenreleasedfromtwenty-sevenyearsinprison,andthenegotiationsbetweentheoppositionandthewhiteminoritygovernmenthadstartedinearnest.LeRoux'sprojectsoundedinterestingandworthwhiletome,andmyShellbosseswerehappy,afteryearsofbeingvilifiedfornothavingdivestedfromSouthAfrica,fortheopportunitytorebuildthecompany'srelationshipswiththeopposition.SoinSeptember1991,ItraveledtoCapeTowntofacilitatethefirstworkshopofwhatbecameknownastheMontFleurScenarioExercise.[14]
　　
　　WhatIfoundexhilaratinginmeetingtheseleaders-frompoliticalparties,tradeunions,communityorganizations,universities,andcompanies-wastheirpowerfulpurposefulness.Everyoneofthemwascommittedtoaddressing,fromtheirparticularidologicalandinstitutionalbase,SouthAfrica'stoughchallenges,andtheyhadalreadyrealizedthattheycouldbesuccessfulonlyiftheyworkedtogether.WhitebusinessmanJohannLiebenberglaterremembered,withsurpriseandpleasure,hisconversationswiththeblackleaderswhohadhithertobeenhisadversaries:"Thiswasnewtome,especiallyhowopen-mindedtheywere.Thesewerenotpeoplewhosimplysaid:'Look,thisishowitisgoingtobewhenwetakeoveroneday.'Theywerepreparedtosay:'Hey,howwoulditbe?Let'sdiscussit.'"[15]Ifeltexcitedtoplayapartinthisimportantsocialchangeprocess.
　　
　　WhatIsawintheseworkshops,andthroughthewindowtheyprovidedmeontothedynamicsofSouthAfrica'sextraordinarytransition,changedmyunderstandingofwhatwaspossibleintheworld.Isawthatateamofleadersfromacrossasocialsystemcould,eveninthemostcomplex,conflictual,andchallengingofcontexts,exercisetheirpowercollectivelytochangethatsystemforthebetter.IwasinspiredbywhatIwaslearningaboutthisgenerativepower.
　　
　　WhatIsawalsochangedmyunderstandingofwhatwaspossibleforme.IsawthatIhadajobtodo-awayofmakingadifferenceintheworld-insupportingsuchteams.In1993,IresignedfromShellandmovedtoSouthAfrica.SincethenIhavebeendoingthiskindofworkthereandelsewhere.
　　
　　DEGENERATIVEPOWER
　　
　　Howdowecometonoticesomethingthatwearenotnoticing?Iwasonceworkinginmyoffice,andmysunglasseswereinmyshirtpocket.Iwentintoadarkclosetandleanedovertopickupsomesuppliesnearthefloor,whenIheardasoundthatIcouldn'tplace.AsIwentout,Iunconsciouslyfiledawaythatanomalousevent-theunexplainedsound-andwentbacktowhatIwasdoing.LaterIsawthatIhadmisplacedmysunglassesandbeganlookingallaroundforthem.ThenIrememberedtheunexplainedsoundandrealizedithadbeenthesoundofmysunglassesfallingoutofmypocketontotheclosetfloor.
　　
　　DuringthefirstyearsafterIleftShellandstartedworkingasafacilitatorofsocialchangeteams,IkepthearingsoundsofasecondkindofpowerthatIdidn'tknowhowtointerpret.MyfirstinterpretationofwhathadhappenedatMontFleur-theinterpretationthatIwasworkingfrom-wasthattheteamhaddecidedthattheirpower,theirdrivetorealizethemselvesasindividualsandasanation,couldmoreeffectivelybeexercisedworkingwithratherthanagainstoneanother.Theyhadusedfourbirdimagestosummarizetheirsharedunderstandingofthedifferentwaysthefutureofthenationmightunfold:an"Ostrich"scenarioofwhitedenial,a"LameDuck"scenarioofanoverconstrainednewblackgovernment,an"Icarus"scenarioofthenewgovernmentflyingtoohightoofast,anda"Flamingos"scenarioofrisingslowlytogether.ButwhenPalloJordan,oneoftheintellectualleadersoftheAfricanNationalCongress,heardthesescenariospresentedatapartymeeting,hethoughttheywereridiculouslynaïveabouttheessentiallyviolentdynamicsofpowerintheSouthAfricancontext."Whatisallthisaboutducksandflamingos?"heaskedincredulously."Theonlybirdsthatmatterherearehawksandsparrows!"
　　
　　ItisnotsurprisingthatJordanandIhaddifferentperspectivesonpower.Icamefromapeacefulandunfetteredbackground,andIhadencounteredSouthAfricaforthefirsttimein1991,oneyearafterthehopefultransitionalnegotiationshadstartedandseveralyearsafterthehopeless,violentclashesbetweenthegovernmentandtheoppositioninthe1970sand1980s.Jordanisblack,whichinapartheidSouthAfricameanshegrewupasasecond-classperson.HehadspentdecadesinexileworkingfortheAfricanNationalCongressandhadonlyjustreturnedtothecountrytoengagedirectlyinthesetoughnegotiations.Powerlooksdifferenttopeoplewhohavetostruggleforit.
　　
　　NowIrealizedwhatIhadbeenhearing:powerhastwosides.Thegenerativesideofpoweristhepower-tothatPaulTillichreferstoasthedrivetoself-realization.Thedegenerative,shadowsideispower-over-thestealingorsuppressionoftheself-realizationofanother.Tillichrecognizesbothsides:"Poweractualizesitselfthroughforceandcompulsion.Butpowerisneithertheonenortheother.Itisbeing,actualizingitselfovernon-being.Itusesandabusescompulsioninordertoovercomethisthreat.Itusesandabusesforceinordertoactualizeitself.Butitisneithertheonenortheother."[16]Power-overabusesforceandcompulsiontosuppressoroppressordominateanother.
　　
　　LikePalloJordan,mywifeDorothyisblackandgrewupinSouthAfricaandwasinvolvedforyearsintheanti-apartheidstruggle.WhenlaterwevisitedGuatemalatogether,shenoticedsomethingthatIdidn't.ThepositionofaboriginalpeoplethereremindedherofblacksinSouthAfrica:theyweretreatedasiftheywereinvisible.Nottoseeanotherperson,ortoseeherorhimasanonperson,istheextrememanifestationofpower-over.
　　
　　Themostcommonunderstandingofpowerisaspower-over.WhenStephenLukes,aprofessorofpoliticsandsociologyatNewYorkUniversity,wrotehisclassic1974bookPower:ARadicalView,heequatedpowerwithdomination.Butthirtyyearslater,inthesecondedition,Lukesrevisedhisview:"Itwasamistaketodefinepowerbysayingthat'AexercisespoweroverBwhenAaffectsBinamannercontrarytoB'sinterests.'Powerasdominationisonlyonespeciesofpower."[17]Power-overisasubsetofpower-to.
　　
　　Degenerativepower-overarisesoutofgenerativepower-to.WhenIamexercisingmypower-toandIfeelmyselfbumpingupagainstyouexercisingyours,andifinthisconflictIhavethecapacitytoprevailoveryou,thenIcaneasilyturntoexercisingpoweroveryou.Mydrivetorealizemyselfslipseasilyintovaluingmyself-realizationaboveyours,andthenintobelievingarrogantlythatIammoredeservingofself-realization,andthenintoadvancingmyself-realizationevenifitimpedesyours.
　　
　　ManywhitesinSouthAfricavaluedtheirself-realizationabovethatofothers,andtheydeployedanideology-apart-heid-tojustifytheirbehavior.Wecanseeanalogousdynamicsacrossracesorethnicgroupsorclassesorgendersineverysociety.Thus,theseductivelybeautifulfaceofpower-tomorphs,asinahorrormovie,intotheviciouslyterriblefaceofpower-over.
　　
　　OnceIhadseenthetwosidesofpowerstarklyinSouthAfrica,Icouldrecognizethemmoreeasilyelsewhere.AfterIleftShell,IconsultedtoseveralcompaniesandbusinessassociationsinHouston,Texas.IfoundthebusinesscultureofHoustonunusualandfascinating.Thebusinesspeopletherewereunconstrainedintheirenthusiasmforindependent,unregulated,entrepreneurialpower-to.Thecan-dopropertydevelopersImetownedprivatecompanieswithnameslike"JohnSmithInterests,"whichIunderstoodtorepresentanunabashedcelebrationoftheadvancingofanindividual'sowninterestsandpower.
　　
　　Thesesamebusinesspeoplewerealsoenthusiasticintheirsupportforvoluntaryphilanthropyandcivicengagement.TheyweremoreawarethanpeopleIhadmetelsewhereoftheirroleintheevolutionoftheirsocialreality.Houstonhadgrownfrombeingthetwenty-firstlargestcityintheUnitedStatesin1940tofourthlargestin1990.Ithadbecomewhatitwasnotbyaccident,butastheresultoftheintentionaldecisionsmadebypeoplesuchasthemselves,andtheyfeltaresponsibilitytocontinuethispublicwork.TheideologyofHoustonbusinesspeoplepromotedindividualself-realizationinalignmentwithcollectiveself-realization.
　　
　　Inthiscommunity,theveryepitomeofpower-towasKenLay,thefounderandchairmanofEnron,the$100billionnaturalgas,electricity,andtelecommunicationscompany.Enronhadbeennamed"America'sMostInnovativeCompany"byFortunemagazinesixyearsinarow,andLaywasadmiredasanentrepreneurialgenius.AtShell,youngstaffwhoconsideredthemselvestobesophisticatedstrategistswereinaweofEnron'sdealmaking.ThecompanywasoneofHouston'sbiggestemployersandcharitabledonors,andithadsponsoredapopularnewdowntownstadium.WhenLayvisitedourHoustonworkshops,theotherbusinessleaderstreatedhimlikeagod.Laysymbolizedthevirtuesofthefreemarketeerwhoseunfetteredpower-toproducedbothprivatewealthandpublicgood.
　　
　　

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